Modular energy recovering water treatment devices

ABSTRACT

A modular device that is optimized for preliminary water treatment and energy generation and methods for operating the same are described.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. ProvisionalPatent Application Ser. No. 61/294,841, filed Jan. 14, 2010; which ishereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

Sludge is a mixture of dense material that is collected from raw sewageduring primary treatment, and secondary biomass that rapidly growsduring the secondary and tertiary treatment steps in a conventionalwastewater treatment plant. According to regulations set by the U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the sludge produced by any singlewastewater plant must be subjected to a treatment strategy that willresult in a 38% reduction of the total volatile suspended solids (VSS)and a final concentration of fecal coliform that is less than 2×10⁶colony forming units. After meeting these standards, the treated sludgeis considered Class B biosolids and may be disposed of in a landfill, orland applied to a restricted site as defined by 40 CFR Part 503 of theClean Water Act.

Sludge treatment strategies often exploit the activity of microorganismsto remove organic contaminants from waste streams. Strategies includeaerobic and anaerobic methods for wastewater and sludge treatment.However, such conventional strategies suffer from numerousdisadvantages. Aerobic methods, for example, require a significantamount of energy input to mix and to aerate reactor contents. Suchsludge treatment methods also result in large volumes of secondarybiomass that must be treated, leading to extra energy cost for treatmentand for disposal.

Anaerobic sludge digestion processes enable a limited amount of energyrecovery through, for example, methanogenesis and co-generation.However, energy production through such processes is inefficient andexcess methane often must be burned as a waste gas. Anaerobic digestersalso require a long residence time and multiple reactors must beemployed to treat the large sludge volumes produced in cities. As aresult, such digesters require much higher levels of energy than theyare able to produce, as well as a large land area for operation.Anaerobic sludge digestion also produces a large amount of secondarybiomass and recalcitrant solid waste products, requiring additionaltreatment and disposal cost.

Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) offer the potential to employ microorganismsto convert the energy stored in organic carbon compounds (waste) intoelectricity. The flow of electrons through the MFC system results inaccelerated primary sludge reduction, reduced volumes of secondarysludge and direct electrical power generation. The catalytic activity ofan MFC is generated by microbes, generally, bacteria, that attach to theconductive surfaces of electrodes and form electrochemically activebiofilms. Microbes within the biofilm at the anode enzymatically extractelectrons from organic components in the sludge, wastewater or otherliquid input and transfer the electrons to the electrode. The microbesmust perform the electron transfer to the electrode surface to maintainbiological functions, in other words, the microbes “breathe” theelectrode surface to live. Because MFC systems are designed toimmediately move the electrical energy away from the microbes throughelectrical current generation, the microbes are unable to use the energyfor growing and for building biomass. Furthermore, the movement ofenergy away from the microbes also accelerates microbial metabolism andincreases primary sludge reduction rates.

Completion of the reactions in existing MFC devices takes place inphysically separate, but electrically linked, compartments withdifferent bacterial biofilms. The cathode is used as a source of energyduring the reduction of oxygen or other oxidant, such as a nitrite, asulfate or a heavy metal. The cathode is submerged in a liquid andtherefore bacterial growth on the cathode is limited by the energysource being delivered across the circuit and therefore, biomassproduction is reduced, relative to traditional aerobic treatmentsystems. Additionally, the production of new water results from thebiologically catalyzed oxygen reduction reaction with the cathode. Forexample, one new molecule of water can be produced for every fourelectrons and two protons that cross from the anode compartment to thecathode compartment during MFC operation, for example, when oxygen isthe oxidant. The production of water is biologically catalyzed and canbe optimized based on how the MFC system is operated.

The products of an MFC system include: 1) treated non-potable water (tosecondary levels) or potable water and carbon dioxide from the anode; 2)a new source of water evolving from the cathode, for example, whenoxygen is included as an oxidant; and 3) electricity as a result of thebioelectrochemical reactions in both compartments.

Research has shown that MFC systems operating with sludge as a fuelsource are able to degrade between 40% to 80% of the initial organiccontent within twelve hours of residence time (Logan, B. E. (2005) WasteScience and Technology 152:31-37; Scott, K. and C. Murano (2007) Journalof Chemical Technology & Biotechnology 82: 92-100; Mohan, S. V. et. al.,(2008) Biosensors and Bioelectronics 23: 1326-1332). However, the workwas conducted in laboratories, using reactors holding 30 to 500milliliters of wastewater.

MFC based systems that can effectively treat wastewater on an industrialscale are needed.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Featured herein are modular systems comprised of a plurality ofmicrobial fuel cells (MFCs) for processing large volumes of wastewater.MFCs within the system may be arranged in series or in parallel andparticular MFCs may be optimized for a particular purpose (e.g. todegrade a particular component of the influent, to accommodate aparticular volume, etc). For example, the anode of one or more of theMFCs can contain a biofilm that has been enriched for organisms thatbreakdown a specific organic material, transfer electrons and/or existin an anaerobic environment. The cathode of one or more of the MFCs cancontain a biofilm that has been enriched to exist in an aerobicenvironment and/or reduce an oxidant.

The anode of the MFC can be positioned internal to the cathode, so as toallow an anaerobic environment to occur in the anode compartment and anaerobic environment to occur in the cathode compartment. In certainembodiments, the cathode has a larger surface area than the anode. Infurther embodiments, the distance between the anode and cathode is lessthan about 2 cm.

Also featured are methods for making biofilms that are enriched forparticular organisms. Certain methods use only wastewater sources and donot require the addition of selective carbon sources.

Further featured are methods for enhancing the treatment of wastewaterin an MFC containing system comprising the steps of: (a) monitoring theelectrical current generated from the reactor; and (b) adding freshinfluent to the system when decreasing electrical current is observed.

The systems described herein produce a treated non-potable water (thatis, partially purified) or a potable water and carbon dioxide from theanode; new water from the cathode; and electricity as a result of thebioelectrochemical reactions in both compartments. The decrease inbiomass production and the direct generation of electricity reduces theoverall cost (relative to maintaining anaerobic or aerobic digesters),while accomplishing comparable or better organic oxidation rates andefficient energy recovery. The systems also reduce production of thewaste gas methane, a significant greenhouse gas, by moving energy awayfrom the microbes as electricity and defining the environment whereextracellular respiration is energetically more favorable than reductionof carbon dioxide to methane. Carbon dioxide produced from the systemscan be harnessed, for example, as fuel for photosynthetic ponds, whichcan be used, for example, as biomass for fertilizer or to producebiofuels. In addition, the systems provide versatility with respect tothe wastewater processed and energy consumed. For example, the systemmay be optimized for sludge reduction at low peak demand (e.g., 64 mgL⁻¹ day⁻¹) and electricity production at high peak demand (e.g., 1kW/m³).

Other features and advantages will become apparent from the followingdetailed description and claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 shows an exemplary modular wastewater treatment system.

FIG. 2 is a photograph of a) an initial sludge sample with water qualityvalues as listed in Table 1, first column; and b) treated effluent withwater quality values listing in Table 1, second column.

FIG. 3 shows the phylogentic diversity of raw sludge samples based on16s rRNA sequencing with Sanger technology. 200 clones were selected forsequencing. The results show a) dominant bacterial phyla; b) dominantbacterial classes; and c) dominant genera of bacteria in the raw sample.

FIG. 4 shows the phylogentic diversity of anode graphitegranule-associated biomass for MFC column 1 a) phyla, b) class, and c)genera; and phylogenetic diversity of anode graphite granule-associatedbiomass for MFC column 3 a) phyla, b) class, and c) genera. DNA wasextracted from anode-associated materials and sequenced using non-primerspecific 454 sequencing technology. The term “Other” refers to bacteriaphyla, class, and/or genera that only represent <0.1% of populationabundance. The term “Unknown” refers to ambiguous or overlapping proteinmatches using APIS analysis software.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

An exemplary embodiment of the modular MFC system described herein isdepicted in FIG. 1. Each column represents one MFC module and all thecolumns can be operated in parallel for sludge degradation.

Primary sludge flows in through the sludge inflow means at the top ofthe MFC and exits through a treated outflow means at the bottom of thecolumn. In certain embodiments the function of the inflow means and theoutflow means are capable of being reversed to remove and/or preventclogging. The column contains an internal anode and external cathode.The anode is comprised of graphite granules framed with titanium mesh.The cathode is a double layer of titanium mesh filled with graphitegranules. Minimum spacing between the anode and cathode (≦1 cm) isutilized, to facilitate optimal mass transfer. The outer layer of theanode is wrapped in a nylon mesh (about 30 μm pore diameter). The systemis submerged in water or another liquid effluent (e.g., primary orsecondary clarifier effluent) to minimize the growing of secondarybiomass at the cathode surface.

The influent to be treated can come from any source, including, forexample, any water-based composition treated in the MFC to produce apotable water, a graywater or other form of near-potable water. Examplesof influent include sludge; a wastewater; a runoff; an industrialwastewater, such as the byproducts of paper making or milling; a foodindustry wastewater, such as a brewery wastewater; an agriculturalwastewater; a residential wastewater; a municipal wastewater; an animalor agricultural wastewater; a sewage; a water from a body of water; andan effluent of anaerobic digesters.

“Treatment” refers to a breakdown of organic matter in wastewater.Effective treatment may be demonstrated as a reduction in: a) totalsuspended solids (e.g. from 22000 mg/L to 6600 mg/L in a 10 day period);(b) biological oxygen demand (e.g. from 4500 mg/L to 2250 mg/L in a 5day residence time); (c) methanogenesis (e.g. from 1.4 ppm to 0.7 ppmover a 10 day period); and (d) odor (e.g. from 21 to 11 ppm H₂S over a 5day period).

In general, the catalytic activity of the MFC is generated by microbialpopulations physically associated with the conductive surface ofelectrodes. A microbial population is “physically associated” with anelectrode if at least a portion of the microbial population is growingon the electrode surface as a biofilm.

A “microbe” or “microorganism” can be any microscopic sized organism,including, for example, a bacterium, a fungus, an algae, anarchaebacterium, a protist, a plankton and the like. A microbe may beunicellular or multicellular.

Microbes physically associated with the anode enzymatically extractelectrons from organic components in the influent and transfer theelectrons to the anode electrode. The movement of energy, in the form ofelectrons, away from the microbes results in accelerated microbialmetabolism and increased remediation of influent. The electronstransported to the cathode electrode can be used as a source of energyfor a distinct microbial population physically associated with thecathode. Bacterial growth on the cathode can be limited by this energysource being delivered across the circuit.

The electrodes may be charged or primed with a suitable microbialcommunity. A starter community, e.g. a wild-type (parental) community(i.e. naturally present in the influent) or an artificial bank ofmicrobes can be used. A resident community can be obtained byinoculating a reactor with influent to be used and maintained for aperiod to select and to establish a local community. At the anode, themicrobes generate electrons which are transferred to the anodeelectrode. The cathode can comprise a microbial population wherecations, including protons, and electrons are utilized during thereduction of a suitable oxidant. Hence, the cathode can be associatedwith a microbial population for consuming the cations and/or an abioticcatalyst, such as a metal (e.g., platinum, a tungsten carbide, a cobaltoxide) or a carbon or graphite-based medium to facilitate the removal ofprotons and other cations from the reactor, preferably as a usable endproduct such as water. Abiotic catalysts include, for example, coatingsubstrate materials with a thin layer of tungsten-carbide-cobalt,titanium, manganese(IV)-oxide, molybdenum, tungsten, or a combinationthereof. Different coating techniques can also facilitate highercatalytic surface area for the abiotic reduction of oxygen.

For example, the anode-associated microbial population may be enrichedfor microbes that are able to grow in an anaerobic environment, usediverse carbon sources for energy, grow as a biofilm on an electrodeand/or transfer electrons to an electrode. The microbial populationphysically associated with the cathode may be enriched for microbes thathave characteristics that improve their ability to function as acathode-associated microbial population in an MFC. For example, thecathode-associated microbial population may be enriched for microbesable to grow in an aerobic environment, use electrons obtained from thecathode for energy, and/or grow as a biofilm on an electrode.

“Electrodes” refers to conductors through which a current enters orleaves a metallic medium. Electrodes used in an MFC can be comprised ofany conductive material that allows microbe attachment. The electrodecan be made entirely of material conductive for electrons or can containmaterial that is conductive for protons. Examples of suitable materialsinclude a metal, a metal compound, a non-metal or a combination thereof.Examples of metals include titanium, platinum and gold; examples ofmetal compounds include a cobalt oxide, a ruthenium oxide, a tungstencarbide, a tungsten carbide cobalt; a stainless steel; or combinationsthereof. Examples of non-metals include a graphite, a graphite-dopedceramic, and a conducting polymer, such as a polyaniline. Electrodes canbe a solid, a composite, or a mixture, such as a collection ofparticulates that are pressed or are formed into a shape of interest,using, for example, a material to help aggregate and secure theparticles, such as, an adhesive, a glue, a binder, or a bonder. Theparticulates can be maintained in a shape or a form of interest by aretaining material (e.g. a restraining means), such as a paper, amembrane, a mesh, a screen, a grating and the like. The retainingmaterial can be comprised of a metal, for example, titanium, and theelectrode material can be, for example, graphite granules, large-poreaerogels, graphite fiber brushes, graphite perforated plates, graphiteporous spheres, graphite woven fibers, graphite felt, graphite cloth ora combination of different conducting, high surface area particulates.When particulates are used, the particulates can be of any shape and anysize, for example, a clinker, a nodule, a fiber or a pellet, which maybe regular in shape, such as a sphere, an ellipsoid or a crystal, orirregular in shape, and can be of varying size. Other suitable materialsfor the retaining material are, for example, a screen or a clothcomprising a metal or a metal composite, such as a stainless steel, atitanium or a high density polyethylene.

The retaining material may provide access to the electrode material tothe influent being treated. Hence, voids may be present in the retainingmaterial. If present, voids can be of a size that will not permitpassage of the electrode material while at the same time allowing theflow of cations and other materials to and from the electrode orelectrode material.

The electrode may be comprised of plural layers of a retaining material,such as a metal mesh filled or interleaved with a conductive material.An electrode may be designed to comprise layers, for example, withplural layers or leafs of retaining material and contained betweenadjacent layers of retaining means is a layer of conductive material,such as granules, resulting in alternating layers of retaining means andconductive material. Such a configuration enhances electrode size andsurface area. Such a configuration also facilitates development of abiochemical gradient within the electrode. The electrode can have acylindrical shape with, for example, at least two layers, leaves, pliesof a retaining material. Individual layers of retaining material can beseparated by a fixed distance, such as, for example, about 0.5 cm, about0.75 cm, about 1 cm, about 1.25 cm. The void between the adjacent layersof retaining material can be filled with an electrode material, such asa conductive material, such as a plurality of granules or porousgranules to enhance surface area, which can be, for example, oblong,circular or ellipsoid in shape, with diameters ranging, for example,from about 2 mm along an axis or the longer axis to about 5 mm along thelonger axis. The retaining material can be, for example, constructedfrom a conductive sheet, a film, a grid or a mesh, which can be composedof, for example, a non-conductive plastic, a metal or other conductivematerial, such as titanium or stainless steel. In a cathode, the layersor multiple layers can enhance proton flow which in turn enhancesreducing reactions.

The anode can resemble a packed bed reactor with a structure that iscomposed of, for example, porous graphite granules, for example, withdiameters ranging from about 2 mm to about 5 mm along its longest axis,and structurally retained and shaped using an aggregating means or asecuring means, such as a glue, an adhesive, a binder or a bonder, or bya retaining material, such as a grid or a mesh. The retaining materialcan be made of a non-conductive material such as plastics, or a metal orother conductive material, such as titanium. For example, titanium isconductive, resistant to corrosion, durable and has inherent catalyticproperties that complement microbial action. Thus, for example, theretaining material can be a woven titanium material facilitating radialmass transfer of ion exchange between the anode and cathodecompartments. A stainless steel or other composite metal mesh can beused for a packed bed-type electrode construction. Tungsten carbide or acobalt oxide is used as a cost-effective abiotic catalytic means for theanode.

The cathode to anode surface area ratio can be configured to be the sameor different. For example, the cathode can be configured to be larger orto have a greater surface area than in the anode. For example, thecathode to anode surface area ratio can be at least about 1:1, about1.25:1, about 1.5:1, about 1.75:1, about 2:1, about 2.25:1, about 2.5:1,about 2.75:1, about 3:1, about 3.25:1, about 3.5:1, about 3.75:1, about4:1, about 4.25:1, about 4.5:1, about 4.75:1 or about 5:1.

Electrode size and shape can be determined by operational parameters.For example, an electrode can be sized and shaped to enhance the surfacearea to volume ratio, for example, by increasing porosity, increasingsurface roughness or modifying the topography of the given conductivematerial. This can be achieved, for example, by applying coatings,defining manufacturing procedures, decreasing particle size and/oradjusting mesh size.

Surface area can in part be dependent on desired residence time,influent waste stream and flow dynamics. For example, particulateelectrode materials should not be packed too densely, as that wouldincrease residence time thereby reducing efficiency. Additionally,electrodes should be designed to facilitate good conductivity.

An appropriate void volume (space between contacting conductingparticles associated with a packed bed structure or a compositestructure of an electrode) can be selected to allow the passage ofmaterials, solid particles and fluid, as well as to decrease the needfor electrode replacement/maintenance. If the void volume betweenconductive particles is great, then the internal resistance of thesystem increases thereby resulting in a reduction in the redox reactionsat the electrodes.

Similarly, an anode can be of a multiple layered configuration, usingthe materials described herein while maintaining anaerobic conditions.Thus, the anode can comprise alternating layers of a retaining material,such as those described above, and of a conducting material, with theinnermost and outermost layers comprising the retaining material.

The configuration of the electrodes is a design choice to optimizereaction conditions. The MFC can comprise alternating plates, sheetsand/or leaves of electrodes; a single anode and a single cathode, eachof which can be of any shape, for example, a rod, a column, a cylinder,a bar and/or a sheet; an equal number of a plurality of anodes and aplurality of cathodes; an unequal number of a or a plurality of anodesand a or a plurality of cathodes; a central anode with the cathodecomprising the inside sidewall of the reactor or affixed as a layerrunning parallel to the inside sidewall (a “perimeter” electrode); acentral cathode with the anode comprising the sidewall of the reactor oraffixed as a layer running parallel to the sidewall; plural centralanodes with a perimeter cathode; or plural central cathodes with aperimeter anode. The electrodes can be oriented in any direction, suchas, for example, horizontally, vertically or radially. As used herein,an anode, unless the context so dictates, can represent a single anodeor plural anodes and a cathode can represent a single cathode or pluralcathodes.

Spacing between the anode and cathode is selected to optimizeoperational parameters, such as, for example, proton transfer. Anyleakage of oxygen to the anode could disrupt electron transfer in theanode or anode compartment; increase biomass growth at the anode;decrease electricity production; and/or decrease energy recovery. Thus,the spacing can be optimized to minimize oxygen transfer whilemaintaining proton transfer.

The spacing can be such that, for example, the anode and cathode areionically in contact but the electrical connection is eliminated. Such aconfiguration prevents a short circuit and optimizes ion (e.g., proton)conductivity such that mass transport does not become rate-limiting. Byoptimizing the spacing between the anode and cathode, current flow canbe optimized, resulting in enhanced oxidation and reduction rates.Features that optimize cation transfer include the minimum distancebetween the cathode and anode electrodes, solution conductivity andconcentration gradients. Solution conductivity (ionic conductivity) andconcentration gradients (pH and/or gas phases) also impact the movementof protons from the anode to the cathode. If the anode environment isproton-rich and the cathode environment is proton-poor, protons willmigrate from the anode to the cathode until equilibrium is achieved. Theshorter the distance protons have to travel, the faster the reductionreaction can occur. The anode can be anaerobic (with few to no oxidants)and the cathode aerobic (with energy-rich oxidants). Under suchconditions protons will migrate along the gradient to complete thereduction reaction. The distance between the anode and the cathode canbe, for example, less than 3 cm, less than 2.75 cm, less than 2.5 cm,less than 2.25 cm, less than 2 cm, less than 1.75 cm, less than 1.5 cm,less than 1.25 cm, or less than 1 cm.

A barrier between electrodes may be used (e.g. a separating means). Thisbarrier can be made of any non-conducting material, such as, forexample, a plastic, a ceramic and/or a polymer (e.g. nylon), and can bepresented as, for example, a sheet, cloth and/or a mesh to provide abarrier means between the electrodes or electrode compartment. Thisbarrier can permit the passage of fluid and/or microbes. Such a barrieris not considered to be a proton selective material. Such barriers maymaximize proton transfer and/or decrease crossover influent, oxidantand/or other reactants. The separating means may be a porous sheet ormesh that is permeable to microbes and fluids. However, in someembodiments, a proton selective material, such as cation exchangemembranes can be used, but are expensive.

In some embodiments, the barrier between electrodes comprises a porous,insulating material that prevents short circuiting of the MFC whilepermitting proton, microbe and/or fluid transfer. For example, amicroporous mesh having, e.g., a pore diameter of between 0.2 and 40 μmcan be used. In some embodiments the pore diameter is no more than about30 μm. Such a microporous mesh can be made of any insulating material,such as nylon, PTFE or PVDF. In some embodiments, the insulating barrieris hydrophilic.

A physical barrier may not be necessary when the distance between theanode and cathode is minimized and controlled to avoid short-circuitingas described herein.

In certain embodiments, the MFCs described herein can establishbiological gradients (from anaerobic to aerobic metabolism), which canexploit a greater metabolic and respiratory diversity than is availablein systems that either have a large separation between the electrodes,e.g. greater than 3 cm), or that employ a cation exchange membrane tominimize oxygen crossover from the cathode to the anode.

Such biologic and chemical gradients occur as a result of biological andsystem operational parameters and enhance MFC efficiency by providingsuitable microenvironments. Hence, the mixture of different microbialconsortia maximizes efficiency and energy recovery. The consortia areenriched when conditions are maintained in the reactor and portionsthereof, such as, anaerobic conditions at the center of the anode or inthe anode compartment, aerobic conditions in the void or space betweenthe anode and cathode, and variable aerobic conditions among the layersof the cathode. Similar conditions can be obtained by having differentoxidant concentrations, e.g., nitrate, in the cathode compartment. Acarbon gradient may exist in the MFC, both from the top of the reactorto the bottom, and radially outward from a central anode to theperipheral cathode in such an electrode configuration.

In certain embodiments, the microbial populations are enriched from aparental microbial population indigenous to the wastewater to bepurified. In such embodiments, the wastewater to be purified iscontacted with the anode electrode of an MFC. During reactor enrichment,the MFC is first operated across a high resistance (e.g., 1000-5000Ω) toachieve biomass at the anode electrode surface. After stable currentproduction has been achieved over several flow cycles (or batch cycles),the resistance across the circuit is then lowered to a medium resistance(e.g., 100-500Ω) to begin optimizing metabolism. Current reproducibilityshould be achieved again and the resistance will be finally lowered to alow resistance (e.g., 10-50Ω) to allow for maximum biofilm activity forthe degradation of compounds. This enrichment process can take anywherefrom 10 to 30 days depending the nature of the wastewater and MFCoperational parameters. After biofilm activity is stabilized, thereactor may be operated for maximum organic degradation rates (close toshort-circuit) or maximum power (defined by the cell polarizationmeasurements).

During operation of the MFC, the fluids at or near the anode can begently agitated, for example, by operating the MFC under flowconditions, to prevent settling and septic conditions, while maintaininganaerobic conditions. The fluid at or near the cathode can be agitated,for example, by added oxidant. The water treatment process can becontinuous, with a constant flow of influent through the anodecompartment and a constant flow of product, for example, water across orfrom the cathode. The inflow of influent can be configured, for example,to allow an average fluid retention time of, for example about 1 day,about 2 days, about 3 days, about 4 days, about 5 days, about 6 days orabout 7 days at the anode for treatment to potable or near potablelevels. Longer residence times can be used to attain water approachingdrinkability. However, increasing the electrode active surface area perunit volume of the reactor can enhance oxidation rates and thus,decrease residence time. Operating the reactor at or near closed circuitconditions can also decrease residence time and accelerate oxidationreactions.

Nutrient degradation rates can be monitored and optimized. For example,samples from the reactor can be collected for chemical and biologicalanalysis of the influent and effluent. The level of acceptable organicmatter, particulates and other elements in an effluent from the MFC is adesign choice. For example, if the amounts tolerated are exceeded aftera single pass through a reactor then the effluent can be retained for alonger time in the reactor or recycled through the same reactor orpassed through another reactor. The recycling system can include aneffluent communication means that transports the effluent back to theinput means of the MFC containing means for treatment once again in thesame MFC or the effluent can be transported by a communication means toa second MFC. The number of passes through an MFC to achieve a desiredendpoint is a design choice.

Production and reaction parameters can be monitored and recordedperiodically or continuously during reactor operation, for example,using automated digital devices (for example, a high-impedance digitalmulti-meter). Additional electrochemical evaluations, includingpotentiodynamic polarization and cell polarization, can be conducted toidentify any rate limiting reactions that may take place at the anode orcathode. Any rate limiting reactions further are evaluated to determinewhether a consequence of system operation, biological limitation, and/orsecondary chemical reactions. System modifications might be employed,based on these data, to address the impact a rate limiting reaction orfactor might have on overall reactor efficiency, e.g., bioaugementationof the active biofilms, and/or changing system flow rates, can be made.

The systems described herein may be optimized to favor one or more of avariety of competing biological processes, that is, to maximize forpower production, particular fermentative reactions, methanogenensis,microbial biomass accumulation (i.e., biofouling), and/or masstransfers.

For example, to decrease methanogenesis and biofouling, it may bebeneficial to run the MFC with a very small load, i.e., facilitatemaximum current by applying a small resistance across the circuit, forexample, 200Ω or less. However, operating an MFC system at maximumcurrent does not allow for maximum power generation because theoperating cell voltage can be low. Operating the system at maximum powerduring sludge reduction can result in faster accumulation of secondarybiomass and an increase in methane production because electrons areallowed to accumulate within the microbial consortia and can be used forgrowth or for the reduction of carbon dioxide. Furthermore, longerresidence times can be required during maximum power generation becauseenergy recovery happens more efficiently after the fermentation processhas already taken place. This could be alleviated by designing anin-line containing means to allow fermentation of the influent prior totreatment in an MFC.

Alternatively, methane production can be minimized by selectingorganisms that favor an accelerated electrogenic metabolism over carbondioxide reduction (Ishii et al., Biosci. Biotech. Biochem. 72, 286,2008). Also, microbes can be selected for which operate at lowertemperatures, therefore requiring less energy for reactor heating.

The real time monitoring of the MFC offers the flexibility of operatingto obtain, for example, maximum power, to recover energy directly aselectricity. Hence, when energy demands are high or desired, forexample, during the day, the system can operate with a higher load,therefore slowing the influent degrading process, but enhancing energyrecovery and electricity production. Alternatively, the MFC can beoperated with a small load, for example, at night, to accelerateinfluent degradation and reduce biomass production.

In certain embodiments, the anode of the MFC described herein isphysically associated with a diverse population of microbes that are notlimited to using only a single carbon source for energy. Thus, it ispossible to obtain a comprehensive phylogenetic description of thebiofilm community residing at the electrodes. Such an analysis enablesproduction of and identity of populations optimized for use in an anodeor interest or a cathode of interest to obtain a desired purpose, suchas energy generation, or residence time to achieve a certain milestoneof a parameter, that is, the consortia is characterized and quantifiedto maximize obtaining a product of interest. That consortia is optimizedfor that application or use.

Metagenomic techniques produce genomic data that reflect the entirecollection of genes present in a community, which then can be used toidentify specific gene clusters, or organisms, that are involved withmetabolic processes relevant to, for example, sludge oxidation, energyrecovery and water production.

Phylogenetic profiling is used to analyze patterns of present and absentgenes families, or proteins, in different genomes that subsequently arecompared to the distribution of phenotypic characters of interest. Genes(or combinations of genes) found preferentially in the genomes oforganisms sharing a particular phenotype are considered functionalcandidates. The phylogenetic profiling can be conducted, for example,using the Automated Phylogenetic Inference System (APIS), developed atthe J. Craig Venter Institute, see, for example, Badger et al., Int. J.Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 55, 1021, 2005; Federova et al., Genomics 6, 177,2005; and Palenik et al., PNAS 103, 13555, 2006.

The information then is applied to elucidate specific functionalprocesses that occur in a diverse microbial community and can beexpanded by conducting metagenomic and metatranscriptomic sequencingunder a variety of conditions to monitor the phylogenetic and geneexpression dynamics within a given system. Understanding microbialcommunity dynamics is a component for developing an optimized renewableenergy and/or water treatment system that can demonstrate stable andcontinuous operation under a variety of conditions with a varyinginfluent and in a number of environments outside of controlledlaboratory conditions, such as in industrial, agricultural or municipalapplications.

To assess the microbial populations, samples of the anode and cathodebiofilms, along with system influent and effluent, are processed, forexample, by genomic analysis, for example, 454 DNA sequencing andmetagenomic analysis. The commercial availability of 454 and Solexasequencing technologies provides an alternative to Sanger sequencing forlarge scale DNA sequencing projects. The 454 technology is based onpyrosequencing (Nordstrom et al., Biotech. Appl. Biochem. 31, 107, 2000;and Gharizadeh et al., Anal. Biochem. 301, 82, 2002). Known advantagesof 454 and Solexa sequencing include: 1) the ability to construct agenomic library without the need to clone cDNA into a vector; 2) thevectorless library allows the circumvention of traditional cloningapproaches and their associated issues such as representation biases andclonability/stability of certain cDNA fragments; and 3) the ability toquickly produce large amounts of sequence data (˜400 Mb to 1 Gb in onerun), and coverage, relative to present technologies.

The MFC can include a containing means. Such a containing means can, forexample, house the entire MFC, house a component of the MFC or aplurality of MFCs. Generally, the containing means can have any shape,including a cylinder, an antiprism, a bifrusta, a cube, a frusta, aprism, a cuboid, a square prism, a panel, or combination thereof. Theoverall shape is a design choice. Factors that contribute to choice ofthe shape of an MFC described herein include, for example stackability,ability to be organized economically in a space and maximizingefficiency of fuel cell operation.

The containing means can be made of any material that can withstand thepressure and the weight of the influent volume and other materialscontained in the MFC. In some embodiments, the containing means is inertto microbial action and/or to components found in the influent. Examplesof suitable materials include a metal, such as a stainless steel, analuminum, an anodized aluminum, a titanium and an anodized titanium; aplastic, such as a polypropylene, a polystyrene, a polyacrylamide or apolymethacrylate; a glass; a cellulosic product, generally which mayinclude a water-proof or a water-resistant layer or lining; a ceramic;or combinations thereof.

The size of the containing means can be varied based on, for example,the intended use of the MFC. Thus, for example, reactor size can bescaled for specific applications. For example, a reactor facilitating aworking volume (the maximum volume of fluid in a reactor at a particulartime point) of about 100 to about 500 gallons of influent may serve theneeds of a single family home. A reactor with a working volume of about1000 to about 9000 gallons of influent may facilitate the treatmentneeds of a small business or of an animal production facility. Largervolume reactors (thousands to millions of gallons of influent) may beused for municipal water treatment facilities servicing communities.Such volumes can be accommodated by the aggregate volume of a pluralityof MFC modules working in concert.

Electric power produced by a MFC described herein may be obtained by anelectrode communicating means, such as a wire or post, which may becomposed of a conductive metal, and may be used to charge batteries orfor other uses, for example, in off-grid environments. Hence, the powergenerated by a fuel cell of interest can be used to operate variousenergy requiring means associated with a fuel cell or a modular systemof interest, such as, driving a pumping means for moving influent orother material into a fuel cell of interest.

The containing means can include means to access the interior thereof,such as, for example, a port, a lid, a door, a cover, a bottom or awindow. The number of and location of said access means on thecontaining means are design choices. For example, certain sites on asidewall of the containing means can be used to ensure access to theinterior of the containing means. The access means can include means toensure a liquid or a gas will not be lost from a reactor or introducedinto a reactor by way of the access means, such as, for example, awasher or a gasket, which can be made of a suitable material, such as arubber or a plastic. Each of those access means can comprise means toreversibly secure said means to or on the containing means. Suitablesuch securing means include, for example, a screw, a bracket or a clamp

The access means can also comprise, for example, a valve, a switch orother manipulable means to control access to the interior of a reactor.Examples of access means include, for example, influent access means,waste gas effluent means, waste inflow means, product outflow means,electricity conducting means, circuit connecting means, liquid inflowmeans, liquid outflow means, influent monitoring means, influent entrymeans, gas monitoring means, water effluent means, effluent accessmeans, oxidant influent means, oxygen or air influent means and energyconducting means. The various means can be comprised of materialidentical to, similar to, or compatible with the material comprising thereactor and/or containing means.

In certain embodiments the containing means can house, for example, aunit, a module or a cell of a modular system or apparatus in which aplurality of MFC modules are operated in series or in parallel as asingle system or apparatus. The size of an individual module in theapparatus can be dictated by, for example, its intended use. The variousmodules of an apparatus can be of the same size or have differing sizes.The modules can be amassed and connected by a communicating means and/orcan be collected in a collective containing means. The communicatingmeans can be, for example, a fluid conducting means, such as a tube, atubing, a pipe, a piping, a hose, or a conduit. Said fluid conductingmeans can be of any suitable material, such as, for example, a metal, arubber, a plastic, a glass, or a combination thereof.

The containing means also can be equipped with suitable controls formonitoring and/or providing information of environmental conditions ofreactor contents, for example, to ensure conditions are conducive tomicrobial growth and/or metabolism. For example, one of said accessmeans can provide access to the culture medium, that is, the water-basedinfluent that is being acted on by the microbes, for example, todetermine temperature by way of a temperature sensing means, such as athermometer or a thermocouple, for example. The temperature sensingmeans can be housed with means to ensure a liquid-proof seal is presentat the access means, such as a washer or a gasket. The temperature meanscan comprise a regulating means that enables control of means to alter areactor environment parameter, such as, temperature, wherein theregulating means interacts and/or interfaces with a means of adjustingthe parameter, such as a heating means, a cooling means or both,associated with the reactor, such as, a microprocessor means, a computerprocessing means or a data processing means associated with atemperature controlling or regulating means to bring the influent beingtreated to the desired temperature. Such regulating of temperature canmaintain a homeostatic environment in the reactor or can provide asuitable varied and/or timed schedule of temperature changes over aperiod of time.

Other controls for monitoring environmental, culture or incubationconditions can be used, such as sensors for oxygen content, for pH, forpressure, for measuring any other reactant or product of interest. Forexample, because operation of the anode can be enhanced under anaerobicconditions, an oxygen sensing means can be provided at the anodecompartment to ensure low levels of oxygen are maintained therein.Another access means at the anode compartment can include a means forremoving gases, such as a vacuum means, or a gas inflow means, forexample, to introduce an inert gas, such as nitrogen, into an anodecompartment of a reactor of interest to produce or to maintain ananaerobic atmosphere or environment. At the cathode compartment, oxygenor other oxidant, such as, a nitrate, a sulfate, a fumarate and/or aheavy metal may facilitate the reducing actions that occur therein andthereon, for example, to produce water. Hence, an oxidant or oxygensensing means also may be provided at the cathode compartment.Additionally, the cathode compartment can have an access means equippedwith a means to introduce oxidant or oxygen to the cathode compartment.

The invention now will be exemplified in the following non-limitingexamples.

EXAMPLE Example 1 Exemplary Modular Water Treatment System

A 20 gallon capacity microbial fuel cell reactor was constructed of fourindependent MFC columns operated in series. Each column was constructedwith an internal anode wrapped externally in a thin insulating layer ofnylon. The nylon mesh (28 μm pore size) served as an insulating barrierto prevent electrical contact between the anode and the cathode, butstill facilitated ion transport between the compartments. The anode wascolumn-shaped and contained carbon-granules held in place by a titaniummesh. The cathode consisted of two cylinders wrapped around the anodewith a distance of about 1 cm separating the anode and the closestcathode cylinder. Both the anode and the cathode were of a packed-bedconfiguration. Titanium mesh was used for the anode and cathode cylinderframes and acted as the conductive leads for each compartment. The anodeand cathode were each filled with asymmetric synthetic graphite granules(˜¼ inch maximum diameter) to increase active surface area. Eachinternal anode compartment had a total volume of 2.8 L.

Influent entered the anode through an inflow means located at the top ofthe column, and exited the anode through an outflow means located at thebottom of the column.

The system was operated at ambient temperatures. Throughout datacollection, the reactor was kept under constant flow at a rate of 100mL/min with a sample residence time of 6.5 min per cycle in the reactor.The anode and cathode were connected across a 1050 ohm resistorthroughout closed circuit operation.

Tests were also performed in batch (no flow) to observe if anydifferences in water quality and energy recovery were apparent relativeto flow operation.

Each raw sludge sample was analyzed prior to introduction into thesystem. Treated effluent was analyzed at 15 and 5 days of operation.Tables 1-3 show water quality results (before and after treatment) asanalyzed by EPA standard methods at CRG Marine Laboratories, Inc. Table1 provides the results of a water quality analysis for sludge influentand treated effluent after 15 days of operation. BOD=biological oxygendemand. Table 2 provides the results of a water quality analysis for thewater surrounding the cathode after 15 days of operation. The system wassubmerged in oxygenated water during operation. Samples of the cathodeeffluent were periodically analyzed to ensure that the cathode water wasnot being contaminated during operation. Table 3 provides the results ofa water quality analysis for a sludge influent and treated effluentafter 5 days of operation.

TABLE 1 Raw Sludge Sample MFC Treated Effluent (1) (15 days ) % ChangeBOD (mg/L) 1540 5.77 99.6% Volatile Suspended Solid (mg/L) 2780 1.599.9% Total Suspended Solids (mg/L) 3120 1.25 100.0%  Turbidity (NTU)1300 2.94 99.8% Total Phosphorous (mg/L) 64.7 4.7 92.7% Total Nitrogen(mg/L) 9.18 3.38 63.2% Ammonia-N (mg/L) 11.9 0.057 99.5% Sulfate (mg/L)78.1 175 55.4%

TABLE 2 Cathode Effluent Cathode Effluent % (Initial) (Final, 15 days)Change BOD (mg/L) ND (<2.00) ND (<2.00) 0.0% Volatile Suspended Solids 22 0.0% (mg/L) Total Suspended Solids 3 3 0.0% (mg/L) Turbidity (NTU)26.3 3.45 86.9%  Tota Phosphorous (mg/L) NR 5.48 — Total Nitrogen (mg/L)NR 3.3 — Ammonia-N (mg/L) 1.03 ND (<0.03) 100.0%  Sulfate (mg/ L) 159170 6.5%

TABLE 3 Raw Sludge Sample MFC Treated Effluent (2) (5 days ) % ChangeBOD (mg/L) 4700 21.7 99.5% Volatile Suspended Solids (mg/L) 22500 4.25100.0% Total Suspended Solids (mg/L) 25100 9.25 100.0% Turbidity (NTU)9690 48.2 99.5% Total Phosphorous (mg/L) 239 129 46.0% Total Nitrogen(mg/L) 392 1.8 99.8% Ammonia-N (mg/L) 51 1 98.0% Sulfate (mg/L) 27.1 14481.2%

When the system was operated under flow, energy recovery in the form ofpower density was 0.5 W/m³ (reactor volume). However, when the systemwas operated in batch with an influent residence time of approximately24 hours, the power density. These data indicate that a majority ofsludge degradation occurs during the first two days of operation, whilemaximum energy recovery begins roughly 5-10 days after sludgeintroduction. As seen in FIG. 2, the improved water purity was alsoreadily apparent via visual inspection.

When the system was operated under flow, energy recovery in the form ofpower density was 0.5 W/m³ (reactor volume). However, when the systemwas operated in batch with an influent residence time of approximately24 hours, the power density nearly tripled to 1.5 W/m³ (reactor volume).These data indicate that system operation can be optimized for differentdemands. For example, when power demands are higher the system can beoperated in batch to generate more electricity and when demands are lowthe system can be operated under flow to improve water quality andaccelerate treatment. System performance can similarly be varied byapplying different loads across the circuit allowing more or lesselectrical current flow.

Phylogenic analysis of the electrode-associated microbial populationswas performed as described herein. The phylogentic analysis of theinitial sludge sample (FIG. 3) and electrode adhered biomass fromcolumns 1 and 3 (FIG. 4) show a significant difference in dominantpopulations between the columns and initial sample, indicating thatmicrobial selection occurs through MFC operation and serves to decreasethe abundance of pathogenic populations such as Neisseria, Enterobacter,and Dysgonomonas.

All references cited herein are herein incorporated by reference inentirety.

1-19. (canceled)
 20. A method of optimizing a microbial population on ananode of a microbial fuel cell (MFC) for wastewater treatment,comprising the steps of: (a) contacting the anode with a parentalmicrobial population and wastewater; (b) operating the MFC at arelatively high resistance for a sufficient period of time to increasethe biomass of the microbial population on the anode (c) operating theMFC at a medium resistance for a sufficient period of time to optimizethe metabolism of the microbial population of the anode; and (d)operating the MFC at a low resistance for a sufficient period of time tooptimize microbial degradation of the wastewater.
 21. (canceled)
 22. Themethod of claim 20, wherein the high resistance is in the range of about1000 to 5000 ohms.
 23. The method of claim 20, wherein the mediumresistance is in the range of about 100-500 ohms.
 24. The method ofclaim 20, wherein the low resistance is in the range of about 10-500ohms.
 25. A method of treating wastewater, the method comprising: (a)providing wastewater to a microbial fuel cell, said microbial fuel cellcomprising: (i) an anode, wherein the anode is physically associatedwith a first microbial population; (ii) a cathode conductively connectedto the anode, wherein the cathode is physically associated with a secondmicrobial population or an abiotic catalyst, the distance between theanode and cathode is less than 3 cm, there is no proton selectivematerial between the anode and the cathode, and the surface area of thecathode is at least twice the surface area of the anode (b) contactingthe wastewater to the anode; (c) allowing the water to continuously flowwith a constant flow of influent through the anode and a constant flowof product across or from the cathode; and (d) collecting the effluent.26. The method of claim 25, further comprising the step of (e)monitoring the electrical current generated from the reactor; and (f)adding fresh influent to the system when decreasing electrical currentis observed.
 27. The method of claim 25, wherein the treatment isdemonstrated as a reduction in total suspended solids, biological oxygendemand, methanogenesis, or odor.
 28. The method of claim 27, wherein thereduction in total suspended solids is from about 22000 mg/L to about6600 mg/L in a 10 day period.
 29. The method of claim 27, wherein thebiological oxygen demand from about 4500 mg/L to about 2250 mg/L in a 5day residence time.
 30. The method of claim 27, wherein themethanogenesis is from about 1.4 ppm to about 0.7 ppm over a 10 dayperiod.
 31. The method of claim 27, wherein the odor is from about 21 toabout 11 ppm H₂S over a 5 day period).
 32. A method of generatingelectricity, the method comprising: (a) providing ammonium to amicrobial fuel cell comprising: (i) an anode; (ii) a cathodeelectrically coupled to the anode; (1) a biofilm comprising a firstmicrobial population physically associated with the anode, wherein thefirst microbial population are microorganisms that catalyze oxidation oforganic carbon compounds in wastewater; (2) a biofilm comprising asecond microbial population physically associated with the cathode,wherein the second microbial population are microorganisms that catalyzereduction of an oxidant; and (b) generating a biochemical gradientwithin the microbial fuel cell to produce electricity.
 33. The method ofclaim 32, wherein the microbial population physically associated withthe anode enzymatically extract electrons from organic components in theinfluent and transfer the electrons to the anode electrode.
 34. Themethod of claim 32, wherein the cathode uses cations, protons, orelectrons as a source of energy during the reduction of oxygen or otheroxidant.
 35. The method of claim 32, wherein the second microbialpopulation consume cations or an abiotic catalyst.
 36. The method ofclaim 35, wherein the abiotic catalyst is metal, carbon, graphite-based,platinum, tungsten carbide, cobalt oxide, titanium, manganese(IV)-oxide,molybdenum, tungsten, or a combination thereof.
 37. The method of claim32, wherein the anode comprises graphite, a graphite-doped ceramic,polyaniline. graphite granules, large-pore aerogels, graphite fiberbrushes, graphite perforated plates, graphite porous spheres, graphitewoven fibers, graphite felt, graphite cloth, or a combination thereof.38. The method of claim 32, wherein the anode comprises a microporousmesh made of nylon, PTFE or PVDF.
 39. The method of claim 34, whereinthe oxidant is a nitrite, a sulfate, a fumarate, or a heavy metal. 40.The method of claim 32, wherein the electricity production at high peakdemand is about 1 kW/m³.